The Soviet occupation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic began on September 17, 1939, when the Red Army crossed Poland's borders. This event was a direct consequence of the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. The invasion led to mass deportations, repressions, and fundamental territorial and demographic changes in Poland.
The Soviet occupation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic is one of the most dramatic episodes in Polish history. This event had an enormous impact on the fate of millions of Poles and changed the geopolitical landscape of Central and Eastern Europe.
The beginning of the Soviet occupation is closely tied to the outbreak of World War II and the secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact. The exact date and circumstances of this event are crucial for understanding the course of the conflict and its long-term consequences for Poland and its citizens.
Historical Background: The Second Polish Republic Before World War II
#The Second Polish Republic, reborn in 1918, faced numerous challenges during the interwar period. The country struggled with:
- Integration of lands from former partitions
- Rebuilding the economy after World War I devastation
- Forming state structures
- Defending borders against external threats
Poland's geopolitical situation in the 1930s was complicated. The country was positioned between two powerful neighbors:
| State | Threat |
|---|---|
| Germany | Growing militarism and expansionism |
| USSR | Aspirations to export communist revolution |
The foreign policy of the Second Polish Republic was based on:
- Alliances with France and Great Britain
- Attempts to maintain balance between Germany and the USSR
- Doctrine of "equal distance" towards both powers
The social structure of the Second Polish Republic was characterized by:
- Multi-ethnicity (Poles, Ukrainians, Jews, Belarusians)
- Economic disparity between regions
- Dynamic development of culture and science
The country's economy was developing but faced difficulties:
- Industrial modernization in the Central Industrial Region
- Currency reforms and stabilization of the złoty
- Effects of the Great Depression of the 1930s
International tensions escalated in the second half of the 1930s:
- Austrian Anschluss (1938)
- Munich Conference and the partition of Czechoslovakia (1938-1939)
- German demands towards Poland (Danzig Corridor, Danzig)
On the eve of World War II, Poland found itself in a difficult strategic situation, threatened by aggression from both Germany and the USSR.
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact And Its Consequences
#The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed on August 23, 1939, was a key event preceding the outbreak of World War II. This agreement, concluded between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, had far-reaching consequences for Poland and the entire Central-Eastern Europe.
Secret Additional Protocol
#The secret additional protocol was an integral part of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This document divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. The protocol covered the territories of Poland, the Baltic states, Finland, and Romania. Its existence was long denied by the USSR, and was officially acknowledged only in 1989. The content of the protocol revealed the true intentions of both totalitarian powers towards the sovereign states of the region.
Division of Spheres of Influence
#The division of spheres of influence specified in the secret protocol had dramatic consequences for Poland:
- Border: A demarcation line was established along the Narew, Vistula, and San rivers.
- Territories: Germany received western and central parts of Poland, USSR - eastern territories.
- Baltic States: Estonia and Latvia fell into the Soviet sphere of influence.
- Lithuania: Initially assigned to Germany, later transferred to the USSR.
- Bessarabia: The USSR expressed interest in this region of Romania.
The pact and its secret protocol enabled both powers to aggress against Poland in September 1939, which led to the de facto Fourth Partition of Poland and the beginning of Soviet occupation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic.
Soviet Aggression on September 17, 1939
#On September 17, 1939, the Soviet Union began its invasion of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic, implementing the provisions of the secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact. This attack, coordinated with the ongoing German aggression, ultimately determined Poland's fate in the initial phase of World War II.
Course of the Invasion
#The Soviet invasion began at dawn on September 17, when the Red Army crossed the Polish border along its entire length. Three Soviet fronts - Belorussian, Ukrainian, and Polesie - totaled 620,000 soldiers, 4,700 tanks, and 3,300 aircraft. Polish forces in the east, weakened by the transfer of most units to fight against Germany, numbered only 20 Border Protection Corps battalions and few rear units.
Soviet troops advanced quickly into Polish territory, encountering sporadic resistance. Key cities such as Vilnius, Grodno, Lviv, and Tarnopol were captured within days. Warsaw capitulated on September 28, and the last battles of regular Polish units ended on October 6.
Response of Poland and the Allies
#The USSR's attack caught Polish authorities unprepared. The Commander-in-Chief, Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz, issued a directive ordering troops to avoid fighting with the Red Army, except in cases of attempted disarmament or self-defense. This decision was driven by hopes of preserving the army's combat capability for fighting Germans and the desire to avoid a formal state of war with the USSR.
The Polish government, already stationed in Kośmin nad Sanem, decided to evacuate to Romania. President Ignacy Mościcki and other government members crossed the Romanian border on the evening of September 17, where they were interned.
The Allies' response to the Soviet aggression was restrained. Great Britain and France, despite their guarantees to Poland, did not declare war on the USSR. They limited themselves to diplomatic protests, not wanting to escalate the conflict. This attitude stemmed from the desire to avoid a two-front war and hopes for a possible future agreement with the USSR against Germany.
The Soviet aggression on September 17, 1939, ultimately sealed the fate of the Second Polish Republic, leading to its de facto division between Germany and the USSR. This event marked the beginning of a long-term Soviet occupation of Poland's eastern territories, which lasted, with an interruption during the German occupation, until 1945.
Legal Aspects of the Soviet Occupation
#The Soviet occupation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic involved numerous violations of international law. The USSR, by entering Polish territory on September 17, 1939, broke existing treaties and conventions, which had far-reaching legal consequences.
Annexation of Eastern Territories By the USSR
#The USSR carried out the annexation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic in violation of international law. On October 1-2, 1939, fictitious elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine were organized. These assemblies, under pressure from Soviet authorities, "requested" the incorporation of occupied lands into the USSR. On November 1 and 2, 1939, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR formally incorporated these territories into the Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR. These actions constituted a flagrant violation of the 1907 Hague Convention, which prohibited an occupying power from changing the legal status of occupied territory.
Position of the International Community
#The international community's response to the Soviet occupation varied. Great Britain and France, despite their alliance with Poland, did not declare war on the USSR. However, they recognized the continuity of the Polish state and its government-in-exile. The USA did not recognize the annexation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic by the USSR. The US State Department issued a statement on October 2, 1939, condemning the Soviet aggression. The League of Nations expelled the USSR from its ranks on December 14, 1939, for aggression against Finland, without directly addressing the occupation of Poland. Most Western countries did not recognize the legitimacy of the annexation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic by the USSR, treating them as occupied territory.
Consequences of Occupation for the Polish Population
#The Soviet occupation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic had catastrophic consequences for the Polish population. Repressions, mass deportations, and attempts at Sovietization of society led to profound demographic and cultural changes in these areas.
Deportations and Repressions
#The Soviet occupation authorities carried out four main waves of deportations of the Polish population between 1940-1941. They affected approximately 330,000 people, including intelligentsia, state officials, officers, and their families. The deportees were mainly sent to Siberia and Kazakhstan, where they were forced to work in inhumane conditions. The NKVD conducted mass arrests, executions, and torture. The Katyn massacre, in which about 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals were murdered, became a symbol of these repressions.
Demographic and Cultural Changes
#The Soviet occupation led to significant changes in the demographic and cultural structure of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic. Mass deportations and forced migrations reduced the Polish population in these areas. Sovietization encompassed all spheres of social life:
- Education: The Soviet education system was introduced, eliminating Polish language and Polish history teaching.
- Religion: The Catholic Church was persecuted, with temples being closed and clergy facing repression.
- Economy: Agriculture was collectivized and industry was nationalized.
- Culture: Polish cultural and scientific organizations were banned.
These actions aimed to eradicate Polish national identity and replace it with the Soviet socio-cultural model. The effects of these changes were felt for many decades after World War II, influencing the shape of society and culture in these territories.
Impact of Occupation on the Further Fate of the Second Polish Republic
#The Soviet occupation of the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic had a profound and lasting impact on Poland's future. The effects of this occupation left their mark on Polish politics, economy, and society for decades.
Territorial and Demographic Changes
#The Soviet occupation led to permanent territorial changes. After World War II, Poland lost 48% of its pre-war territory in the east, including important cultural centers like Lviv and Vilnius. In return, it received territories in the west and north, known as the Recovered Territories.
The demographic changes were equally significant:
| Aspect | Data |
|---|---|
| Population loss | About 1.8 million Poles from the Eastern Borderlands |
| Resettlement | 2 million Poles were relocated from eastern to western territories |
| Change in ethnic structure | Significant reduction in national minorities |
Impact on Politics and System
#The Soviet occupation contributed to:
- Establishment of a communist government in post-war Poland
- Incorporation of Poland into the Soviet sphere of influence
- Limitation of state sovereignty until 1989
- Introduction of a centrally planned economy system
Social and Cultural Consequences
#Long-term effects of the occupation included:
- Destruction of pre-war intellectual and political elites
- Disruption of cultural continuity in the Eastern Borderlands
- Generational trauma related to deportations and repressions
- Changes in social mentality and attitudes toward authority
Impact on International Relations
#The Soviet occupation affected Poland's position in the international arena:
- Weakening of Poland's position in the region
- Dependence of foreign policy on the USSR
- Problems with international recognition of new borders
- Difficulties in building relationships with neighbors, especially Lithuania and Ukraine
The Soviet occupation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic was a turning point in Polish history, determining its fate for many decades. The effects of this occupation are still felt today, influencing contemporary national identity, historical policy, and Poland's international relations.
Summary
#- The Soviet occupation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic began on September 17, 1939, as a result of the secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.
- The USSR's attack came while Poland was defending itself against German aggression, leading to the rapid collapse of the Polish state.
- Soviet occupation involved mass repressions, deportations, and attempts to Sovietize the Polish population in occupied territories.
- The effects of occupation included permanent territorial, demographic, and systemic changes in post-war Poland.
- This event had a long-term impact on Polish politics, economy, and society, determining the country's fate for many decades.
Summary
#The Soviet occupation of eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic was a key event shaping Poland's fate in the 20th century. Beginning on September 17, 1939, it brought dramatic territorial, demographic, and cultural changes.
Its effects are still felt today, influencing national identity and historical memory of Poles. This occupation contributed to profound geopolitical changes in Central and Eastern Europe.
Understanding this period is essential for a complete picture of Polish and regional history. It serves as a painful lesson about the consequences of totalitarian regimes' aggression against sovereign states.