Following Pearl Harbor attack, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, leading to forced relocation of 120,000 Japanese Americans to internment camps across western United States, marking one of the most significant civil rights violations in US history.

The tragic chapter of Japanese internment camps in American history began shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066, signed on February 19, 1942, authorized the forced relocation of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans to detention facilities across the western United States.

This dark period marked one of the most significant violations of civil rights in U.S. history, as American citizens and legal residents of Japanese descent were uprooted from their homes and businesses with little notice. Many families lost everything they owned and were forced to live in hastily constructed camps surrounded by barbed wire and armed guards. The government's actions stemmed from widespread fear, racism, and unfounded suspicions about Japanese Americans' loyalty to the United States during World War II.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing military commanders to designate exclusion zones on the West Coast. This order established the legal framework for the mass incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II.

Roosevelt's decision stemmed from intense political pressure from West Coast representatives, military advisors, and the Department of War. Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, commander of the Western Defense Command, submitted a formal recommendation for Japanese exclusion on February 14, 1942. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson presented the final draft of Executive Order 9066 to Roosevelt five days later, leading to its immediate signing without congressional review or public debate.

Key Figures	Role	Date
Franklin D. Roosevelt	President	February 19, 1942
John L. DeWitt	Western Defense Commander	February 14, 1942
Henry L. Stimson	Secretary of War	February 19, 1942

• Created Military Area 1: California Oregon Washington coastal regions
• Established Military Area 2: California Oregon Washington inland regions
• Designated restricted zones around military installations power plants transportation hubs
• Imposed curfews travel restrictions property ownership limitations on Japanese Americans
• Required all persons of Japanese ancestry to register at civil control stations
• Set evacuation deadlines ranging from 7-14 days per exclusion zone

The U.S. government implemented a systematic process of relocating Japanese Americans following Executive Order 9066, with distinct phases occurring between February and October 1942.

The FBI initiated arrests of Japanese American community leaders on December 7, 1941, detaining 1,291 individuals within 48 hours of the Pearl Harbor attack. The Western Defense Command established Military Area No. 1 on March 2, 1942, covering the Pacific coastal areas. Between March 12-29, 1942, Japanese Americans received the opportunity to voluntarily relocate outside the restricted zones, with 4,889 families choosing to move eastward.

The Wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA) executed the forced evacuation starting March 24, 1942. Military authorities posted Civilian Exclusion Orders in Japanese American neighborhoods, giving residents 7 days to report to assembly centers. The process followed this sequence:

1. Register at civil control stations
2. Undergo medical examinations
3. Store or sell property
4. Pack essential belongings (limited to two suitcases per person)
5. Report to temporary assembly centers
6. Transfer to permanent relocation centers

Evacuation Statistics	Numbers
Total evacuees	120,313
Assembly centers	15
Permanent camps	10
Average family size	4.8
Days given to evacuate	7

The WCCA completed the mass evacuation by October 30, 1942, relocating Japanese Americans to permanent camps in seven states: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming.

The U.S. government established a network of temporary assembly centers and permanent relocation camps to detain Japanese Americans during World War II. These facilities were strategically positioned across multiple states, with most initial detention centers located along the West Coast.

The Wartime Civil Control Administration operated 17 temporary assembly centers across the West Coast in 1942. These facilities served as holding areas for Japanese Americans before their transfer to permanent camps:

• Pinedale Assembly Center (California): Housed 4,792 evacuees from Sacramento and Oregon
• Santa Anita Assembly Center (California): Contained 18,719 detainees in converted horse stables
• Pomona Assembly Center (California): Accommodated 5,434 individuals from Los Angeles County
• Tanforan Assembly Center (California): Detained 7,816 people in converted racetrack facilities
• Portland Assembly Center (Oregon): Held 3,676 evacuees from the Pacific Northwest
• Puyallup Assembly Center (Washington): Housed 7,390 detainees from Seattle and Alaska

The War Relocation Authority operated 10 permanent camps across seven states:

Camp Name	Location	Peak Population	Operating Period
Manzanar	California	10,046	Mar 1942 - Nov 1945
Tule Lake	California	18,789	May 1942 - Mar 1946
Poston	Arizona	17,814	May 1942 - Nov 1945
Gila River	Arizona	13,348	Jul 1942 - Nov 1945
Heart Mountain	Wyoming	10,767	Aug 1942 - Nov 1945
Minidoka	Idaho	9,397	Aug 1942 - Oct 1945
Granada	Colorado	7,318	Aug 1942 - Oct 1945
Topaz	Utah	8,130	Sep 1942 - Oct 1945
Rohwer	Arkansas	8,475	Sep 1942 - Nov 1945
Jerome	Arkansas	8,497	Oct 1942 - Jun 1944

Each permanent center included barracks, mess halls, latrines, medical facilities, schools, post offices, warehouses, guard towers with armed personnel.

Japanese Americans endured severe hardships in internment camps, living in cramped quarters under constant surveillance. The camps transformed their daily lives into a structured routine of communal living marked by loss of privacy and personal freedom.

Internees lived in hastily constructed barracks measuring 20x16 feet, with each family allocated a single room regardless of size. The buildings lacked insulation, leaving occupants exposed to extreme temperatures ranging from below freezing to over 100°F. Basic amenities included:

• Communal latrines without partitions
• Mess halls serving three meals at fixed times
• Military-style cots with straw-filled mattresses
• Shared laundry facilities with limited washing machines

Daily schedules followed a rigid pattern:

• 7:00 AM wake-up calls
• Designated meal times in crowded mess halls
• Assigned work duties paying $12-19 monthly
• Mandatory evening roll calls
• 10:00 PM lights out

The internment created lasting economic devastation for Japanese Americans, with estimated property losses of $400 million in 1940s currency. Social structures underwent significant changes:

Economic Effects:

• Forced sale of businesses at 10-25% of actual value
• Loss of farms, homes, vehicles
• Confiscation of bank accounts
• Employment limited to camp-related work

Social Changes:

• Disrupted family hierarchies

• Formation of youth gangs

• Increased generational conflicts

• Breakdown of traditional customs

• Creation of new social networks within camps

• Armed guards in watchtowers

• Perimeter fencing with barbed wire

• Regular headcounts

• Censored mail communication

• Restricted movement outside camp boundaries

The process of ending Japanese internment began in late 1944 after legal challenges reached the Supreme Court. These challenges combined with shifting public opinion led to the eventual closure of all camps by 1946.

The Supreme Court issued two landmark decisions in 1944 that impacted Japanese internment. In Korematsu v. United States (December 18, 1944), the Court upheld the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 with a 6-3 vote, maintaining the government's position on evacuation. However, in Ex parte Mitsuye Endo (December 18, 1944), the Court unanimously ruled that the government could not detain loyal American citizens, marking a turning point in internment policy.

Major Eugene Rostow announced the War Department's decision to end the exclusion order on December 17, 1944. The WRA established a structured release program that included:

Phase	Timeline	Number Released
Initial Release	January 1945	44,000
Mid-Year	June 1945	51,000
Final Closure	March 1946	25,313

The closure process included:

• Distribution of $25 travel allowances per person
• Provision of transportation to pre-war locations
• Creation of relocation offices in major cities
• Implementation of housing assistance programs
• Distribution of stored property from government warehouses

The last internment camp, Tule Lake in California, closed on March 20, 1946. The U.S. government spent $38 million on the final relocation process to assist former internees in reestablishing their lives outside the camps.

Japanese internment left an indelible mark on American history, prompting decades of activism for recognition and restitution. The government's acknowledgment of these civil rights violations led to significant legislative action and social change.

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 marked a formal apology from the U.S. government to Japanese American internees. President Ronald Reagan signed the act on August 10, 1988, authorizing $20,000 in reparations to each surviving internee, totaling $1.6 billion in compensation. The Office of Redress Administration distributed payments to 82,219 eligible individuals between 1990 and 1999. The act included provisions for public education funding to prevent similar civil rights violations.

The legacy of Japanese internment influences contemporary civil rights discourse and policy decisions. Multiple institutions preserve this history through dedicated museums, such as the Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles and the Manzanar National Historic Site in California. Educational programs in 43 states include mandatory curriculum content about Japanese internment. The experience serves as a legal precedent in cases involving civil liberties during national security crises, cited in 27 Supreme Court decisions since 1944. Organizations like the Japanese American Citizens League continue advocating for civil rights protections, monitoring government policies affecting ethnic minorities during times of national emergency.

Impact Category	Statistical Data
Reparation Recipients	82,219 individuals
Total Compensation	$1.6 billion
Historic Sites	10 preserved locations
Educational Coverage	43 states
Legal Citations	27 Supreme Court cases

• Japanese internment began after Pearl Harbor, with President Roosevelt signing Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942.
• Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to detention facilities across western United States between 1942-1946.
• The government established 10 permanent relocation camps across seven states, with temporary assembly centers initially used along the West Coast.
• Internees faced severe hardships including cramped living quarters, loss of property, and economic devastation estimated at $400 million in 1940s currency.
• The last internment camp closed on March 20, 1946, and in 1988, the Civil Liberties Act provided formal apology and $20,000 in reparations to each surviving internee.

The Japanese internment camps stand as a stark reminder of how fear and prejudice can lead to the violation of fundamental civil rights. From 1942 to 1946 over 120000 Japanese Americans endured unimaginable hardships stripped of their homes businesses and dignity.

While the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 provided monetary compensation and a formal apology the impact of this dark chapter continues to resonate. Today these events serve as a powerful lesson about protecting civil liberties and maintaining vigilance against discrimination especially during times of national crisis.

The preservation of this history through museums educational programs and ongoing advocacy ensures that future generations will remember the importance of upholding constitutional rights for all Americans regardless of their ethnic background.